Which empire is recognized for its achievements in mathematics and astronomy during the Middle Ages?

The Islamic Caliphates are recognized for their significant achievements in mathematics and astronomy during the Middle Ages due to the cultural and intellectual flourishing that took place under their rule. This period saw the preservation and enhancement of ancient Greek and Indian knowledge, coupled with original contributions that laid the groundwork for modern mathematics and astronomy.

Mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi advanced the fields of algebra and introduced the concept of algorithms, which is foundational to modern computation. Astrologers and astronomers like Al-Battani improved observational techniques and developed more accurate models of the celestial bodies, which were crucial for navigation and the calendar.

The Islamic Caliphates established centers of learning, such as the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various cultures collaborated, translating and contributing to vast bodies of knowledge. Their work not only influenced subsequent generations in the region but also played a pivotal role in the Renaissance and the development of science in Europe.

In contrast, while the Roman and Byzantine Empires did contribute to engineering and architecture, their focus did not yield the same level of advancements in mathematics and astronomy as seen during the era of the Islamic Caliphates. The Mongol Empire, known for its military conquests and role in connecting various cultures through trade,